ABSTRACT: Character education has been an important agenda since the beginning of Indonesian independence. This article, based on the qualitative study and historical approach, tries to elaborate the character education in Indonesia. Findings show that the government policy in later periods affects the character education models in the schools. In the Old Order era, 1959-1966, especially in the Guided Democracy era, the character education had tended to be indoctrinated. Similarly, during the New Order era, 1966-1998, tend to be indoctrinated too. During the Reform era, 1998 to date, the character education is integrated into every lesson, self-development activities, and school culture. The learning model is given to the teachers. Teachers can develop innovative learning models according to student characteristics and learning needs. In the perspective of character education as a process of values education, the concept is initially a component that touches the philosophy of educational objectives of humanizing humans or humanistic learning. The learning models relevant to the concept are constructivist learning. With these models, students will discover and understand the values of the nation's character as the basis for taking certain attitudes and actions through internalization process, i.e. the developmental change from externally controlled behavior to internally controlled behavior. Indoctrination models, such as in the Old Order era and New Order era in Indonesia, did not suitable with the humanistic philosophy of value education.

KEY WORDS: Character Education; Indoctrination; Humanistic Theory; Indonesian Governments Policy; Learning Models.

About the Authors: Yudi Hartono, M.Pd. is a Doctoral Student at the Study Program of Education Science FKIP UNS (Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sebelas Maret University), Jalan Ir. Sutami No.36-A Kentingan, Surakarta 57126, Central Java, Indonesia. Prof. Dr. Samsi Haryanto is a Professor Emeritus at the Departement of History FKIP UNS in Kentingan, Surakarta 57126, Central Java, Indonesia. Dr. Asrowi is a Lecturer at the FKIP UNS in Kentingan, Surakarta 57126, Central Java, Indonesia. Corresponding author is: yudihartono@student.uns.ac.id

Suggested Citation: Hartono, Yudi, Samsi Haryanto & Asrowi. (2018). “Character Education in the Perspective of Humanistic Theory: A Case Study in Indonesia” in EDUCARE: International Journal for Educational Studies, Volume 10(2), February, pp.95-108. Bandung, Indonesia and BS Begawan, Brunei Darussalam: Minda Masagi Press owned by ASPENSI and BRIMAN Institute, ISSN 1979-7877.

Article Timeline: Accepted (December 19, 2017); Revised (January 20, 2018); and Published (February 28, 2018).

Character Education; Indoctrination; Humanistic Theory; Indonesian Governments Policy; Learning Models

Ali, Zeeshan & Ashish Ranjan Sinha. (2016). “Integrating Ethics in Technical Education for Sustainable Development” in Purushartha, Vol.IX, No.1, [March — August], pp.89-98.

Amézola, Gonzalo de. (2007). “A ‘Necessary’ Dictatorship: The ‘Age of Rosas’ in Argentine History Textbooks Published between 1956 and 1983 and the Defence of Authoritarianism” in Pedagogica Historica, Vol.43, No.5, pp.669-684.

Anggono, Bayu Dwi. (2014). “Konstitusionalitas dan Model Pendidikan Karakter Bangsa Pasca Putusan Mahkamah Konstitusi” in Jurnal Konstitusi, Vol.11, No.3 [September], pp.505-516.

Assegaf, Abd R. (2005). Politik Pendidikan Nasional. Jakarta: Kurnia Salam.

Azra, Azyumardi. (2007). “Islam, Corruption, Good Governance, and Civil Society: The Indonesian Experience” in Pluto Journals. Available online also at: file:///C:/Users/acer/Downloads/207-Article%20Text-808-1-10-20130403.pdf [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 9, 2017].

Baltes, P.B., H. Reese & L. Lipsett. (1980). “Lifespan Developmental Psychology” in Annual Review of Pyschology, Volume 31, pp.65-110.

Bourchier, David. (2007). Pancasila Versi Orde Baru dan Asal-Muasal

Negara Organis (Integralistik). Yogyakarta: PSP UGM, PSSAT, and P2D, Translation.

Bourchier, David & John D. Legge. (1994). Democracy in Indonesia, 1950s and 1990s. Clayton, Victoria: Monash University.

Creswell, J.W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2nd edition.

Dalyono, M. (2012). Psikologi Pendidikan. Jakarta: Penerbit Rineka Cipta.

Darmaningtyas. (2004). Pendidikan yang Memiskinkan. Yogyakarta: Galang Press Group.

Dewantara, Ki Hadjar. (2004). Pendidikan: Bagian Pertama. Yogyakarta: Majelis Luhur Persatuan Taman Siswa.

Dhofier, Zamakhsyari. (2011). Tradisi Pesantren: Studi Pandangan Hidup Kiai dan Visinya mengenai Masa Depan Islam Indonesia. Jakarta: Penerbit LP3ES, Translation.

Feist, J. & G.J. Feist. (2009). Theories of Personality. New York: McGraw Hill, 7th edition.

Gunawan, Heri. (2012). Pendidikan Karakter: Konsep dan Implementainya. Bandung: Alfabeta.

Haridza, Risa & Karen E. Irving. (2017). “The Evolution of Indonesian and American Science Education Curriculum: A Comparison Study” in EDUCARE: International Journal for Educational Studies, Vol.9(2), February, p.99-110.

Hartono, Yudi. (2017). “Model Pembelajaran Nilai-nilai Karakter Bangsa di Indonesia dari Masa ke Masa” in Jurnal AGASTYA, Vol.7, No.1 [Januari].

Hering, Bob. (2001). Soekarno: Architect of a Nation, 1901–1970. Leiden: KIT Publishers Amsterdam.

Jaquet, F.G.P. [ed]. (2000). Kartini: Surat-surat kepada Ny. R.M. Abendanon-Mandri dan Suaminya. Jakarta: Djambatan, 3rd edition.

Joyce, Bruce, Marsha Weil & Emily Calhoun. (2011). Model of Teaching: Model-model Pembelajaran. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, translated by Achmad Fawaid & Ateilla Mirza.

Keesing, Elisabeth. (1999). Betapa Besar pun sebuah Sangkar: Hidup, Suratan, dan Karya Kartini. Jakarta: Djambatan, Translation.

Kemdiknas RI [Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia]. (2010). Pengembangan dan Pendidikan Budaya & Karakter Bangsa: Pedoman Sekolah. Jakarta: Puskur Balitbang Kemdiknas RI [Pusat Kurikulum, Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan, Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia].

Koesoema, A. Doni. (2007). Pendidikan Karakter: Mendidik Anak di Zaman Global. Jakarta: Grasindo.

Komara, Endang. (2017). “Curriculum and Civic Education Teaching in Indonesia” in EDUCARE: International Journal for Educational Studies, Volume 10(1), August, pp.23-32. Bandung, Indonesia: Minda Masagi Press owned by ASPENSI, ISSN 1979-7877.

Krishna, Hari P. (2012). “A Study on Importance of Value Based Higher Education” in Purushartha, Vol.IV, No.II, September 2011 — February 2012, pp.125-136.

Krišto, Snježana. (2012). “The Relationship between Extroversion/Introversion, Perceptual Learning Styles and Success in English as a Foreign Language”. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Osijek: Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, J.J. Strossmayer University. Available online also at: https://zir.nsk.hr/islandora/object/ffos%3A1906/datastream/PDF/view [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 25, 2017].

Maftuh, Bunyamin. (2008). “Internalisasi Nilai-nilai Pancasila dan

Nasionalisme melalui Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan” in Jurnal Educationist, Vol.II, No.2 [Juli], p.135-146.

Manijo. (2013). “Menggali Pendidikan Karakter Anak: Perspektif R.A. Kartini” in Thufula STAIN Kudus, Vol.1, No.1 [Juli-Desember].

Mastuhu. (2003). Menata Ulang Pemikiran Sistem Pendidikan Nasional dalam Abad 21. Yogyakarta: Safiria Insani Press and Magiter Studi Islam UII [Universitas Islam Indonesia].

McLeod, S.A. (2017). “Developmental Psychology”. Available online at: www.simplypsychology.org/developmental-psychology.html [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 25, 2017].].

Mulder, Niels. (2001). Individu, Masyarakat, dan Sejarah: Kajian Kritis Buku-buku

Pelajaran Sekolah di Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius.

Niam, Khoirun. (2010). “The Discourse of Muslim Intellectuals and `Ulama in Indonesia: A Historical Overview” in Journal of Indonesian Islam, Vol.04, No.02 [December]. Available online at: http://jiis.uinsby.ac.id/index.php/JIIs/article/viewfile/72/72 [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 25, 2017].

Nirwana, Herman et al. (2006). Belajar dan Pembelajaran. Padang: FIP UNP [Fakultas Ilmu Pendidikan, Universitas Negeri Padang].

Nishimura, Shigeo. (1995). “The Development of Pancasila Moral Education in Indonesia” in Southeast Asian Studies, Vol.33, No.3 [December].

Available online also at: https://kyoto-seas.org/pdf/33/3/330302 [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 25, 2017].

Nugroho, Sigit Sapto. (2017). “Membumikan Hukum Pancasila sebagai Basis Hukum Nasional Masa Depan” in Muhammad Azil Maskur et al. [eds]. Prosiding Seminar Nasional tentang Revitalisasi Ideologi Pancasila dalam Aras Global: Perspektif Negara Hukum. Semarang: Badan Penerbit FH UNNES [Fakultas Hukum Universitas Negeri Semarang]. Available online also at: http://syariah.stainpamekasan.ac.id/media/materi/Revitalisasi [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 9, 2017].

Nurdin, Encep Syarief. (2015). “The Policies on Civic Education in Developing National Character in Indonesia” in International Education Studies, Vol.8, No.8. Available online also at: file:///C:/Users/acer/Downloads/51660-177750-3-PB.pdf [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 9, 2017].

Oey, Lee Hong. (1971). Indonesian Government and Press during Guided Democracy. Switzerland: Hull Monographs on South-east Asia, 4, Inter Documentation Co. Ag Zug.

Oguz-Unver, Ayse & Sertac Arabacioglu. (2014). “A Comparison of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL), Problem-Based Learning (PBL), and Project-Based Learning (PJBL) in Science Education” in Academia Journal of Educational Research, 2(7), July, pp.120-128. Available online also at: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sertac_Arabacioglu/publication [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 9, 2017].

Penders, Christiaan Lambert Maria. (1968). “Colonial Education Policy and Practice in Indonesia, 1900-1942”. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Brisbane: Australian National University. Available online also at: file:///C:/Users/acer/Downloads/b1015176x_Penders_C_L_M%20(1).pdf [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 9, 2017].

Prayitno, Lydia Lia & Rarasaning Setyaningsih. (2011). “Pembelajaran Matematika Berbasis Pendidikan Karakter untuk Sekolah Dasar” in Iskandar Wirjokusumo et al. [eds]. Proceedings the International Conference on Future Education in Global Challenges. Surabaya: UNIPA [Universitas PGRI Adibuana].

“Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Panjang Nasional, 2005 — 2025”. Available online at: http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_Perencanaan_Pembangunan_Nasional [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 25, 2017].

Ricklefs, M.C. (1992). Sejarah Indonesia Modern. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, Translation.

Rogers, Carl. (1961). On Becoming a Person: A Therapist's View of Psychotherapy. London: Constable.

Rogers, Carl, Harold C. Lyon & Reinhard Tausch. (2013). On Becoming an Effective Teacher: Person-Centered Teaching, Psychology, Philosophy, and Dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and Harold Lyon. London: Routledge,

Saidek, Abdul Rahim, Raisul Islami & Abdoludin. (2016). “Character Issues: Reality Character Problems and Solutions through Education in Indonesia” in Journal of Education and Practice, Volume 7. Available online also at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1108663.pdf [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 9, 2017].

Sanjaya, Wina. (2007). Kajian Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran. Bandung: SPs UPI [Sekolah Pascasarjana Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia].

Sardiman, A.M. & Rhoma Dwi Aria Yuliantri. (2012). “Dinamika Pendidikan pada Masa Orde Baru: Kebijakan Daoed Joseof dan Nugroho Notosusanto”. Unpublished Research Report. Yogyakarta: FIS UNY [Fakultas Ilmu Sosial Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta]. Available online also at: http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/default/files/penelitian/Rhoma%20Dwi [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 9, 2017].

Scaramanga, Jonathan Theodore. (2017). “Systems of Indoctrination: Accelerated Christian Education in England”. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. UK [United Kingdom]: UCL Institute of Education. Available online also at: http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1556460/7/Scaramanga [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 25, 2017].

Schunk, Dale H. (2012). Teori-teori Pembelajaran: Perspektif Pendidikan. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, Translation.

Shnirelman, Victor. (2009). “Stigmatized by History or by Historians? The Peoples of

Russia in School History Textbooks” in History & Memory, Vol.21, No.2 [Fall/Winter], pp.110-149.

Sjamsuddin, Helius. (2007). Metodologi Sejarah. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Ombak.

Stefaroi, P. (2015). Humanistic Personology, a Humanistic-Ontological Theory of the Person & Personality: Applications in Therapy, Social Work, Education, Management, and Art (Theatre). Charleston SC, USA [United States of America]: Create Space.

Surakhmad, Winarno. (2008). “Pendidikan Pancasila: Pendekatan yang Meng-Indonesia-kan” in Pelangi Ilmu, Vol.2, No.1, pp.1-12.

Sutisna, A. (2011). Sejarah Perkembangan Kurikulum. Bandung: PPs UPI [Program Pascasarjana, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia].

Taniredja, T., M. Afandi & E.M. Faridli. (2012). “The Appropriate Pancasila Education Contents to Implant Lofty Values for Indonesian

Students” in EDUCARE: International Journal for Educational Studies, 5(1). Available online also at: http://research.unissula.ac.id/research/file/publikasi/211313015/6732Jurnal_internasional.pdf [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 25, 2017].

Tilaar, H.A.R. (2012). Perubahan Sosial dan Pendidikan Pengantar Pedagogik Transformatif untuk Indonesia. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.

Wahyudin, Dinn & Andi Suwirta. (2017). “The Curriculum Implementation for Cross-Cultural and Global Citizenship Education in Indonesia Schools” in EDUCARE: International Journal for Educational Studies, Volume 10(1), August, pp.11-22. Bandung, Indonesia: Minda Masagi Press owned by ASPENSI, ISSN 1979-7877.

Watz, Michael. (2011). “An Historical Analysis of Character Education” in Journal of Inquiry & Action in Education, 4(2). Available online also at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1134548.pdf [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: October 25, 2017].

Williams, Carrie. (2007). “Research Methods” in Journal of Business & Economic Research, Volume 5, Number 3 [March]. Available online also at: file:///C:/Users/acer/Downloads/2532-Article%20Text-10126-1-10-20110207.pdf [accessed in Surakarta City, Indonesia: November 10, 2017].

Yamin, Mohammad. (2009). Menggugat Pendidikan Indonesia: Belajar dari Paulo Freire dan Ki Hadjar Dewantara. Yogyakarta: Ar-Ruz Media.