ABSTRACT: Africa continent has under-gone various historical phases, like other continents of the world. It will, therefore, tantamount to mono-causer argument to justify the condition of the continent based on the impact of a phase without giving reference to other phases, as it appears to be the central argument of the proponents of dependency theory. However, Africa was once a centre of civilization. In the context of reality, it is more or less a paradox of history in the twenty-first century. Africa’s glory is benighted and riddles in the expression of rhetoric and illusion. The continent is imploded and ravaged with multidimensional problems. Some scholars attributed the phenomenon to the Atlantic slave trade and colonialism, while others saw it as a matter of destiny. This paper uses the lens of history to give a panoramic evaluation of its socio-political and economic situations in the pre-colonial, colonial, and post-colonial eras. The study argues that even though the present situation of Africa continent leans on its past, slave trade, and colonialism can no longer be used exclusively as viable evidence for its stagnation and backwardness in the world history. It argues that Africa’s problems are with Africans, and there would be no change in the situation if Africans continue with the strategy of external aids, assistance, technology transfer from Europe and Americas. There is the need for structural overhauling of African systems, most especially the enemies of moral, political, educational, and economy.

KEY WORDS: Africa, paradox of history, slave trade, colonialism, military, corruption, strategy of external aids, and structural overhauling of African systems.

About the Author: Paul Ilesanmi Akanmidu, Ph.D. is a Lecturer at the Department of History & International Studies, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State in Africa. For academic interests, the author is able to be contacted via e-mail at: paulakanmidu@gmail.com

How to cite this article? Akanmidu, Paul Ilesanmi. (2015). “African Historical Past: A Paradox of Global Reality in the Twenty-First Century” in TAWARIKH: International Journal for Historical Studies, Vol.7(1) October, pp.1-14. Bandung, Indonesia: Minda Masagi Press, ISSN 2085-0980.

Chronicle of the article: Accepted (February 28, 2015); Revised (April 21, 2015); and Published (October 28, 2015).

Abun-Nasar, J.M. (1971). A History of the Maghreb. Cairo: CUP.

Adeniji, A. (2001). “Globalization and its Challenges in Africa” in International Journal of History and International Studies, Vol.1, No.2 [December], pp.36-52.

Afigbo, A.E. et al. (2001). The Making of Modern Africa, Volume 2: The Twentieth Century. London: Longman Group, United Kingdom Limited.

Agbo, J. (2010). How African Underdeveloped Africa: A Forgotten Truth in History. Ibadan: Kraft Books Ltd.

Ajayi, J.F.A. (1993). “The Philosophy and History of the Crusade for Reparation” in J.F.A. Ajayi & M.O. Vogt [eds]. Proceedings of the First Pan-African Conference on Reparation. Ibadan: Longman, Wemilore Press.

Akintoye, S.A. (2006). Emergent of African State: Topics in Twentieth Century African History. London: Longman Group Limited.

Albert, O. (2011). Pinched, Ditched of Jinxed? The Mantra of African Solutions to African Problems: An Inaugural Lecture. Ibadan: University of Ibadan.

Baikie, W.B. (1867). “Notes on a Journey from Bida to Kano in Hausa” in Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 37.

Baikie, W.B. (1966). Narrative of an Exploring Voyage Up the Rivers Kwora and Benue Commonly Known as the Niger and Tsadda in 1854. London. Longman.

Banfield, A.W. (1905). Life among the Nupe Tribe. Berlin: Ont Publisher.

Bard, Kathyn & Ian Shaw [eds]. (2000). The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Barkindo, B., M. Omolewa & G. Babalola. (1994). Africa and the Wider World: Africa since the Scramble. London: Longman, Nigeria Plc.

Barth, H. (1962). “Travels in Nigeria” in A.H.M Kirk-Green [ed]. Extracts from the Journal of Henrich’s Travels in Nigeria, 1818-1855. London: Longman, Nigeria Plc.

Boahen, A.A. (1966). Britain, the Sahara, and the Western Sudan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Boahen, A.A. (1994). “The Caravan Trade in the Nineteenth Century” in Journal of African History.

Callaghy, T.M. (1991). “Africa and the World Economy: Caught between a Rock and a Hard Place” in John, W. Harbeson & Donald Rothchild [eds]. Africa in World Politics. Oxford and San Francisco: Boulder Press.

Cammett, M. & I. Diwan. (2013). “The Political Economy of the Arab Uprisings” in A. Richards et al. [eds]. A Political Economy of the Middle East. London: Westview Press, 3rd edition.

Claude, A. (1981). A Political Economy of Africa. London: Longman Group Ltd.

Coleman, J.S. (1963). Nigeria Background to Nationalism. California: University of California Press.

David, Dedirot. (2001). “Raynal’s Histoire des dex Indes” in Journal of Africa History, Vol.XXI, No.5.

Davidson, B. (1961). Black Mother: Africa, the Years of African Slave Trade. London: Victor Gollan.

Davidson, B. (1962). The Search for Africa: A History in the Making. London: Victor Gollan.

Davidson, B. (1970). Old Africa Rediscovered. London: Longman Paperback Edition.

Davidson, B. (1994). Modern Africa: A Social and Political History. London: Longman.

Davidson, B. et al. (1967). The Growth of African Civilization: A History of West Africa, 1000 — 1800. London: Longman.

Du Bois, W.E.B. (1911). The Quest of the Silver Fleece: A Novel. Chicago: A.C. McClurg.

Ekwuru, E.G. (2001). Africa and the Myth of the Sleeping Giant. Owerri: Totan Publishers.

El-Nadoury, R. (1981). “The Legacy of Pharaonic Egypt” in G. Mokhtar [ed]. Ancient Civilization of Africa. California: UNESCO [United Nations for Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization] General History of Africa II and University of California Press.

Fage, J.D. (1955). An Introduction to the History of West Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Fage, J.D. (1969). A History of West Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Fieldhouse, D.K. (1967). The Theory of Capitalist Imperialism. London: Longman.

Forster, S. et al. (1988). Europe and Africa: The Berlin Africa Conference, 1884-1885, and the Onset of Partition. London: OUP [Open University Press].

Gallay, Alan. (2009). Indian Slavery in Colonial America. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press.

Hakem, A.A. (1981). “The Civilization of Napata and Meroe” in G. Mokhtar [ed]. Ancient Civilization of Africa. California: UNESCO [United Nations for Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization] General History of Africa II and University of California Press.

Hopkins, A.G. (1973). An Economic History of West Africa. New York: Colombia University Press.

Idowu, E.B. (1973). African Traditional Religion. London: SCM Press, Ltd.

Ihonvbere, J. (1996). Economic Crisis, Civil Society, and Democratization: The Case of Zambia. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press.

Inikori, J.E. (1978). “The Origin of the Diaspora: The Slave Trade from Africa, the African Diaspora” in Tarikh, Vol.5, No.4.

Kamil, Jill. (2000). Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo, second edition.

Kobishanov, Y.M. (1981). “Aksum: Political System, Economics, and Culture” in G. Mokhtar [ed]. Ancient Civilization of Africa. California: UNESCO [United Nations for Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization] General History of Africa II and University of California Press.

Lasisi, R.O. (2011). “The Image of Africa: Rhetoric and Reality of Afro-European Relations”. Paper presented in the Ninety-Sixth Inaugural Lecture, Department of History and International Studies, Faculty of Arts, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Leclant, J. (1981). “The Empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe” in G. Mokhtar [ed]. Ancient Civilization of Africa. California: UNESCO [United Nations for Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization] General History of Africa II and University of California Press.

Lovejoy, P.E. (1983). Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. London: Routledge.

Lovejoy, P.E. (1989). “The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Africa: A Review of the Literature” in Journal of African History.

Manning, P. (1990). Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and Africa Slave. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Martins, S.M. (1989). “The Long Depression: West African Export Producers and the World Economy, 1914-1945” in Ian Brown [ed]. The Economies of Africa and Asia in the Inter-War Depression. London: Routledge.

Morley, P. (1978). “Culture and the Cognitive World of Traditional Medical Belief: Some Preliminary Considerations” in P. Morley & W. Roy [eds]. Culture and Caring. London: Peter Orven.

Ngcongco, L.D. (1984). “Southern Africa: Its Peoples and Social Structure” in D.T. Niane [ed]. Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century: General History of Africa, Volume IV. California, USA [United States of America]: Heinemann.

Obayemi, A. (1995). “The Yoruba and Edo-Speaking Peoples and Their Neigbours Before 1600” in J.F.A. Ajayi & M. Crowder [eds]. History of West Africa, Volume 1. London: Longman.

Offiong, D. (1980). Imperialism and Dependency: Obstacles to African Development. Enugu, Nigeria: Fourth Dimension Publishers.

Ogbogbo, C.B.N. (1979). Of History, Culture, and the African Crisis. Ibadan: Stirling-Horan.

Ogot, B.A. (1992). “The Great Lake Region” in D.T. Niane [ed]. UNESCO General History of Africa, Volume IV: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. California, USA [United States of America]: Heinemann Press.

Olaoye, R.A. (1993). “Ilorin Textile Industry, 1850-1960: A Case of Science and Technology”. An Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Ilorin, Nigeria: Department of History, University of Ilorin.

Oliver, R. & J.D. Fage. (1975). A Short History of West Africa. London: Penguin, 5th edition.

Omar, Cooper J.D. et al. (1968). The Growth of African Civilization: The Making of Modern Africa, Volume 1. London: Longman.

Onimode, B. (1988). A Political Economy of the African Crisis. London and New Jersey: Zed Book Ltd.

Philip, Curtin. (1969). The Atlantic Slave Trade. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.

Rodney, Walter. (1987). How Europe Underdevelped Africa. Washington DC [Distric of Columbia]: Howard University Press.

Thurstan, Shaw. (1965). “Pre-History of West Africa” in J.F.A. Ajayi & M. Crowder [eds]. History of West Africa, Volume 1. London: Longman.

Webster, J.B. & A.A. Boahen. (1967). The Growth of African Civilization: The Revolutionary Years West Africa Since 1800. London: Longman Group Ltd.

Yoyotte, J. (1981). “Pharaoh Egypt: Society, Economy, and Culture” in G. Mokhtar [ed]. Ancient Civilization of Africa. California: UNESCO [United Nations for Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization] General History of Africa II and University of California Press.